Heart Failure or Chronic Heart Failure (“CHF”) is a condition that occurs when the heart becomes damaged and reduces blood flow to the organs of the body. If blood flow decreases sufficiently, kidney function becomes altered, which results in fluid retention, abnormal hormone secretions and increased constriction of blood vessels. These results increase the workload of the heart and further decrease the capacity of the heart to pump blood through the kidneys and circulatory system.
It is believed that progressively decreasing perfusion of the kidneys is a principal non-cardiac cause perpetuating the downward spiral of CHF. Moreover, the fluid overload and associated clinical symptoms resulting from these physiologic changes result in additional hospital admissions, poor quality of life and additional costs to the health care system.
In addition to their role in the progression of CHF, the kidneys play a significant role in the progression of Renal Failure or Chronic Renal Failure (“CRF”), Renal Disease or End-Stage Renal Disease (“ESRD”), Hypertension (pathologically high blood pressure) and other cardio-renal diseases. The functions of the kidneys can be summarized under three broad categories: filtering blood and excreting waste products generated by the body's metabolism; regulating salt, water, electrolyte and acid-base balance; and secreting hormones to maintain vital organ blood flow. Without properly functioning kidneys, a patient will suffer water retention, reduced urine flow and an accumulation of waste toxins in the blood and body. These conditions result from reduced renal function or renal failure (kidney failure) and are believed to increase the workload of the heart. In a CHF patient, renal failure will cause the heart to further deteriorate as fluids are retained and blood toxins accumulate due to the poorly functioning kidneys.
It has been established in animal models that the heart failure condition results in abnormally high sympathetic activation of the kidneys. An increase in renal sympathetic nerve activity leads to decreased removal of water and sodium from the body, as well as increased renin secretion. Increased renin secretion leads to vasoconstriction of blood vessels supplying the kidneys, which causes decreased renal blood flow. Reduction of sympathetic renal nerve activity, e.g., via denervation, may reverse these processes.
Applicants have described methods and apparatus for treating renal disorders by applying a pulsed electric field, preferably non-thermal, to neural fibers that contribute to renal function. See, for example, Applicants' co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. (a) 11/129,765, filed on May. 13, 2005, (b) 11/189,563, filed on Jul. 25, 2005, and (c) 11/363,867, filed Feb. 27, 2006, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. A pulsed electric field (“PEF”) may initiate renal denervation or other neuromodulation via irreversible electroporation or other processes. The PEF may be delivered from apparatus positioned intravascularly, extravascularly, intra-to-extravascularly or a combination thereof. Additional methods and apparatus for achieving renal neuromodulation via localized drug delivery (such as by a drug pump or infusion catheter) or use of a stimulation electric field are described in co-owned and co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/408,665, filed Apr. 8, 2003, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,978,174, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.
A potential challenge of using non-thermal PEF systems for treating renal disorders is to selectively electroporate target cells without affecting other cells. For example, it may be desirable to irreversibly electroporate renal nerve cells that travel along or in proximity to renal vasculature, but it may not be desirable to damage the smooth muscle cells of which the vasculature is composed. As a result, an overly aggressive course of non-thermal PEF therapy may persistently injure the renal vasculature, but an overly conservative course of non-thermal PEF therapy may not achieve the desired renal neuromodulation.
Applicants have previously described methods and apparatus for monitoring changes in tissue impedance or conductivity in order to determine the effects of pulsed electric field therapy. Such changes in tissue can be used to determine an extent of electroporation and/or its degree of irreversibility in target or non-target tissue. See, for example, Applicant's co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/233,814, filed Sep. 23, 2005, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. However, in some patients it may be difficult or impractical to achieve such real-time monitoring when utilizing non-thermal pulsed electric field neuromodulatory mechanisms. In some patients, this may necessitate re-intervention the degree of induced neuromodulation was not sufficient to achieve a desired treatment outcome. Conversely, an overly aggressive course of relatively unmonitored or uncontrolled therapy may induce undesirable and/or persistent damage in non-target tissue. Thus, it would be desirable to achieve renal neuromodulation via more easily monitored and/or controlled neuromodulatory mechanisms.